Learning Chinese at Confucius institutes in Malaysian universities: Perspectives from east Malaysia through a cultural diplomacy lens
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol11iss1pp1-18Abstract
Background and Purpose: Global demand for Chinese as a foreign language has surged, especially in Southeast Asia, driven by China’s growth. Malaysia, with strong China ties, has high demand, partly met by Confucius Institutes (CIs), yet research on East Malaysian university CIs is scarce. Since Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) launched East Malaysia’s first CI in 2019, its operations and learner experiences require systematic study. This research addresses this gap, exploring Chinese learning realities at UMS’s CI to illuminate dynamics in multilingual, cross-cultural contexts.
Methodology: A qualitative case study was used, with semi-structured interviews of two CI management directors and three students (purposively sampled to capture institutional and learner perspectives). Interviews focused on experiences, pedagogy, challenges, and strategies. Data were analyzed via thematic coding in Microsoft Excel to identify key patterns.
Findings: Students highlighted five factors: (a) mixed motivations (career/interest), (b) contextual pedagogy effectiveness, (c) limited immersive cultural engagement, (d) productive skill acquisition barriers, and (e) needs for program enhancement. Directors emphasized: (a) the integrative mission, (b) aligning with local needs, (c) multifaceted challenges, and(d) growth through community collaboration.
Contributions: This study fills a gap on East Malaysian CIs, offering insights for improving programs (e.g., cultural immersion, skill practice). It enriches understanding of global language initiatives in local contexts, guiding educators, policymakers, and future research on Chinese education in Southeast Asia.
Keywords: Chinese education, Confucius Institute, cultural diplomacy, Malaysia-China relation, East Malaysia.
Cite as: AlSaqqaf, A., Hu, K., Rahim, S., & Rudie Adie, R. (2026). Learning Chinese at Confucius institutes in Malaysian universities: Perspectives from east Malaysia through a cultural diplomacy lens. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 11(1), 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol11iss1pp1-18
References
Acquaye, J. B. (2020). Western perceptions on Confucius Institute advancement of Chinese language and culture: A narrative review. US-China Education Review B, 10(5), 185-199.
Adler, E. (2013). Constructivism in international relations: Sources, contributions, and debates. In W. Carlsnaes, T. Risse, & B. A. Simmons (Eds.), Handbook of international relations (pp. 112-144). Sage Publications.
An, Y. (2019). International promotion of Chinese language in the new era. International Education Studies, 12(7), 67-79.
Beckerman, W. (1956). The world trade multiplier and the stability of world trade, 1938 to 1953. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 24(3), 239–252.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Cáceres-Lorenzo, M. (2015). Teenagers learning Chinese as a foreign language in a European Confucius Institute: The relationship between language learner strategies and successful learning factors. Language Awareness, 24(3), 255-272.
Chen, L. (2024). Factors influencing Chinese learners’ satisfaction with online classes: Insights from Confucius Institutes in Hungary. Journal of Chinese Language Teaching in Europe, 2, 57-73.
Chin, H. B., Feng, N. Y., & Yan, C. J. (2021). Investigating the attributes of Chinese primary school adoption among the Malay community in Malaysia. ESTEEM Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 5(2), 151-164.
Choi, J. (2015). Rationality, norms and identity in international relations. International Politics, 52, 110–127.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2024). Demographic statistics first quarter 2024. DOSM. https://storage.dosm.gov.my/demography/demography_2024-q1.pdf
Du, R. (2023). A survey of local Chinese teacher training in German Confucius Institutes. Creative Education Studies, 11(3), 631-638.
Fassihi, Y., Soorizadeh, A., & Nazerian, H. (2022). Investigating the effect of modern diplomacy on foreign policy based on constructivist theory. International Journal of Political Science, 12(2), 183-210.
Fu, N. P. (2022). Confucius Institutes in Southeast Asia: An overview. In L. Suryadinata & B. Loh (Eds.), Rising China and new Chinese migrants in Southeast Asia (pp. 49–67). ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute.
Gil, J. (2022). The fall of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms: An analysis of closures and future directions. Melbourne Asia Review. https://melbourneasiareview.edu.au/the-fall-of-confucius-institutes-and-confucius-classroomsan-analysis-of-closures-and-future-directions/
Goh, Y. S. (2017). Teaching Chinese as an international language: A Singapore perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Han, Z. H. (2017). The theoretical landscape of second language acquisition. In I. Kecskes & C. F. Sun (Eds.), Key issues in Chinese as a second language research (pp. 3–26). Routledge.
Hicham, K., AlQbailat, N. M., Ismail, I. A., Qpilat, N. M., Al-Khawaldeh, N. N., Al-Shboul, O. K., & Masrar, F. Z. (2025). Interculturalizing ELT: Culture-based classes to enhance language skills and intercultural communicative competence dimensions. Ampersand, 14, Article 100221.
Hofferberth, M., & Weber, C. (2015). Lost in translation: A critique of constructivist norm research. Journal of International Relations and Development, 18, 75–103.
Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. Profile Books.
Hopf, T. (1998), The promise of constructivism in international relations theory. International Security, 23(1), 171-200.
Hrubý, J., & Petrů, T. (2019). China’s cultural diplomacy in Malaysia during Najib Razak’s premiership. Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 12(1), 111-129.
Huang, M. (2023). Otherness and suspiciousness: A comparative study of public opinions between the Confucius Institute and Goethe-Institut in developing countries. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10, Article 428.
Jia, J. (2019). Chinese language learner motivation: Vision, socialization and progression. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 10(1), 44–60.
Jiao, X., & Qin, Q. (2023). The development of Confucius Institute and its identity transformation—From the perspective of social identity theory. Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations: An International Journal, 9(2-3), 351-381.
Kachru, B. (1989). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk and H. Widowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-36). Cambridge University Press.
Keat, O. B., & Ma, J. (2023). The impact of Chinese language learning motivation on intercultural identity among international students at a private university in Henan Province. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development, 11(10), e1335–e1335.
Keimetswe, L. A. (2023). The impact of the Chinese government scholarship program and Confucius Institute on China’s national image in Botswana: A soft power perspective. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 19, 488–499.
Li, J., & Tian, X. (2016). A global experiment in the internationalization of Chinese universities: Models, experiences, policies, and prospects of the Confucius Institutes’ first decade. Chinese Education & Society, 49(6), 411–424.
Li, Q., Han, Y., Li, Z., Wei, D., & Zhang, F. (2020). The influence of cultural exchange on international trade: An empirical test of Confucius Institutes based on China and the ‘Belt and Road’ areas. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 34(1), 1033–1059.
Li, S. (2025). Problematising China’s soft power: Setbacks of Confucius Institutes and the decentralisation of its international language and culture promotion strategy. The Pacific Review, 38(3), 397-421.
Liu, M. (2023). University students’ dynamic motivation to learn Chinese as a second language. Sage Open, 13(4), 1-12.
Lok, B. B. K., Dai, Y., Devkota, D., Poudel, A., & Oo, Z. (2025). Framing of China’s soft power in Nepal: A case study of cultural and educational diplomacy in the media. Journalism and Media, 6(2), 1-14.
Lyu, S., Kay, R. C. S., & Olmedo Panal, E. (2024). Constructing ethnic consciousness: The role of cultural heritage in Malaysia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 49(1), 1–23.
Magam, N. L. (2022). The role of interests and identities in the practice of international relations among sub-regional entities: Towards a constructivist theory of paradiplomacy. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 9(3), 141-160.
McCourt, D. M. (2016). Practice theory and relationalism as the new constructivism. International Studies Quarterly, 60(3), 475–485.
Ngu, I. T., & Ngeow, C. B. (2021). Soft power, Confucius Institute and China’s cultural diplomacy in Malaysia. Kajian Malaysia, 39(1), 55–76.
Nur Mutia, R. T., & de Archellie, R. (2023). Reassessing China’s soft power in Indonesia: A critical overview on China’s cultural soft power. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1), 1-14.
Nye, J. (2017). Soft power: The origins and political progress of a concept. Palgrave Communications, 3, Article 17008.
Saito, K. (2021). What characterizes comprehensible and native-like pronunciation among English-as-a-second-language speakers? Meta-analyses of phonological, rater, and instructional factors. TESOL Quarterly, 55(3), 866-900.
Selezneva, N. V. (2021). Learning Chinese in Vietnam: The role of the Confucius Institute. Russian Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 5(4), 71–86.
Siah, P. C., Ong, S. B. C., Tan, S. M., & Sim, C. P. (2015). Perception on Chinese values: A comparison of Chinese secondary students studying at national secondary schools and Chinese independent schools in Malaysia. The Social Science Journal, 52(1), 62–68.
United Chinese School Teachers’ Association of Malaysia. (2020). Non-Chinese students in Chinese primary schools 2010 and 2020 data. Jiaozong. https://jiaozong.org.my/v3/images/stories/new/2021/july/2020_jzreport.pdf
Wang, Y., Uzodinma, C. G., & Niu, C. (2021). The path, value and limits of the Confucius Institute in carrying out public diplomacy. Economic and Political Studies, 9(2), 217–229.
Wen, X., & Piao, M. (2020). Motivational profiles and learning experience across Chinese language proficiency levels. System, 90, 102216–102213.
Wendt, A. (1995). Constructing international politics. International Security, 20(1), 71–81.
Wong, S. H. (2024). Sustainable development of Chinese education in Malaysia: A SWOT-PEST analysis of internal and external environments. Malaysian Studies Journal, 13, 55-78.
Xia, N., & Yang, Y. (2018). Confucius institute and China’s cultural diplomacy: A case study of Confucius Institutes in Malaysia. Australian Journal of Science and Technology, 2(3), 135-137.
Yeoh, E. K., Chang, L., & Zhang, Y. (2018). China–Malaysia trade, investment, and cooperation in the contexts of China–ASEAN integration and the 21st century maritime silk road construction. The Chinese Economy, 51(4), 298-317.
Zhou, W. (2022). Cultural diversity and the phenomenon of "Confucius Institutes". Policy Science, 30(1), 57-75.
Zhou, Y. (2021). Confucius Institute in the Sino-Thai relations: A display of China’s soft power. Asian Journal of Social Science, 49, 234–243.
Zhu, B., & Li., X. (2024). Transformational governance framework for institutions of cultural diplomacy: The case of the Chinese Confucius Institute. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 30(4), 491-510.
