A REVIEW OF CAMBODIAN PRIVATE TUTORING: PARASITIC AND SYMBIOTIC FUNCTIONS TOWARDS THE MAINSTREAM SYSTEM
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol6iss1pp42-58Abstract
Offering private tutoring (PT) to their students is legal in Cambodia. However, teachers are banned from engaging in PT during official hours and holidays. Literature has proven common root causes across contexts such as low salaries, class size, insufficient instructional times and high-stakes examinations. With a new attempt, this narrative paper aims to discuss PT and its effects from the different stakeholders’ perspectives and to reflect PT functions towards mainstream education. On the one hand, symbiosis generates a ‘dependency system,’ divided into two relationships such as ‘commensalism’ between PT and the mainstream system, and ‘mutualism’ between supply and demand side including the mainstream system. On the other hand, parasitism (professional misconduct) exists owing to policy implementers’ laissez-faire approach in exercising the approved codes of conducts. Hence, the parasitism remains in the public classrooms owing to the lack of accountability and monitoring system of the in-charge stakeholders. Its presence enlarges the capacity of the dependency system to cast a shadow over the incomplete shape and size of the mainstream system. Thus, it should be alerted that when it is oversized, this symbiotic function may downplay the mainstream system and moves it away from the core attention of the demand side.
Keywords: Cambodia, extra lesson, private tuition, shadow education, supplementary tutoring.
Cite as: Soeung, S. (2021). A review of Cambodian private tutoring: Parasitic and symbiotic functions towards the mainstream system. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 6(1), 42-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol6iss1pp42-58
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Li, T. S., & Choi, B. C. (2014). Private supplementary tutoring in Macao: Past, present and the future. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 505-517.
Maeda, M. (2019). Exam cheating among Cambodian students: When, how, and why it happens. Campare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 1(1), 1-19.
Mai, V. (2016, July 29). Teachers to be punished for corruption. Khmer Times. Retrieved from https://www.khmertimeskh.com/26268/teachers-to-be-punished-for-corruption/
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Mori, I., & Baker, D. (2010). The origin of universal shadow education: What the supplemental education phenomenon tells us about the postmodern institution of education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 36-48.
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Barron, L. (2014, September 8). Meet the man behind the exams. The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved from https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/meet-man-behind-exams?fbclid=IwAR2cpjH6kDHyG5RkTdwzyuparPWqdnU5enj8kd5dhwT1dcXBb6f9b7QFL7g
Biswal, B. P. (1999). Private tutoring and public corruption: A cost-effective education system for developing countries. The Developing Economics, 37(2), 222-240.
Bray, M. (1999a). Shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. UNESCO International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP).
Bray, M. (1999b). The private costs of public schooling: Household and community financing of private education in Cambodia. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Bray, M. (2010). Blurring boundaries: The growing visibility, evolving forms and complex implications of private supplementary tutoring. ORBIS SCHOLAE, 4(2), 61-73.
Bray, M. (2013). Shadow education: Comparative perspectives on the expandsion and implications of private supplementary tutoring. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 77(1), 412-420.
Bray, M., & Kwo, O. (2016). Regulating privates for public goods: Policy options for supplementary education in Asia. Comparative Education Research Centre (CERC).
Bray, M., & Kwok, P. (2003). Demand for private supplementary tutoring: Conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong. Economics of Education Review, 22(1), 611-620.
Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow euducation: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy markers in Asia. Asian Developemnt Bank.
Bray, M., & Seng, B. (2005). Ballancing the books: Household financing of basic education in Cambodia. Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Liu, J., & Zhang, W. (2016). The internal dynamics of privatised public education: Free-charging supplementary tutoring provided by teachers in Cambodia. International Journal of Educational Development, 49(1), 291-299.
Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Zhang, W., & Liu, J. (2018). The hidden curriculum in a hidden marketplace: Relationships and values in Cambodia's shadow education system. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4), 1-21.
Bray, M., Kwo, O., & Jokic, B. (2015). Introduction. In M. Bray, O. Kwo, B. Jokic, M. Bray, O. Kwo, & B. Jokic (Eds.), Researching private supplementary tutoring: Methodological lessons from diverse cultures (pp. 3-19). Comparative Education Research Centre (CERC), Springer.
Bray, M., Liu, J., Zhang, W., & Kobakhidze, M. N. (2019). (Mis)trust and (abuse of) authority in Cambodian education: Parellel lessons in the shadow. In M. Schüpbach, & N. Lilla (Eds.), Extended education from an international comparative point of view (pp. 7-21). Springer.
Brehm, W. C. (2015). The structures and agents enabling educational corruption in Cambodia: Shadow education and the business of examinations. In Y. Kitamura, D. Edwards Jr., C. Sitha, & J. H. Williams (Eds.), The political economy of schooling in Cambodia (pp. 104-123). Palgrave Macmillan.
Brehm, W. C., & Silova, I. (2014). Hidden privatization of pubic education in Cambodia: Equity implications of private tutoring. Journal for Educational Research Online, 1(1), 94-116.
Brehm, W., Silova, I., & Mono, T. (2012). The public-private education system in Cambodia: The impact and implications of complementary tutoring. ESP working paper series No. 39. Education Support Program, Open Society Foundation.
Chhay, C. (2014, January 2). Test changes target cheat. The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved from https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/test-changes-target-cheats?fbclid=IwAR0nzL1fDEnSh9XCcXj9itYwh0h9pvJeyTUvHVHIA-bZ3PAaRxI1KdOYNtY
Dawson, W. (2009). The tricks of the teacher: Shadow education and corruption in Cambodia. In S. P. Heyneman (Ed.), Buying your way into heaven: Education and corruption in international perspective (pp. 51-73). Senses Publishers.
Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 14-24.
Edwards Jr., D., Le, H., & Sustarsic, M. (2019). Spatializing a global education phenomenon: Private tutoring and mobility theory in Cambodia. Journal of Education Policy, 35(5), 713-732.
Hammond, C. D. (2018). Corruption in the classroom: The dilemma of public school teachers in Cambodia providing private tutoring to their own students. The Journal of Rikkyo University Language Center, 39(1), 3-13.
Heyneman, S. P. (2009). Education sorruption in international perspective: An introduction. In S. P. Heyneman (Ed.), Buying your way into heaven: Educationa and corruption in international perspective (pp. 1-8). Sense.
Heyneman, S. P. (2011). Private tutoring and social cohesion. Peabody Journal of Education, 86(2), 183-188.
Kenayathulla, H. B. (2015). Research on private tutoring in Malysia: Methodological insight from a quantitative study. In M. Bray, O. Kwo, & B. Jokic (Eds.), Researching private supplementary tutoring: Methodological lessons from diverse cultures (pp. 49-74). Comparative Education Research Centre (CERC), Springer.
Keng, C. (2009). Basic education in Cambodia: Quality and equity. In Y. Hirosato, & Y. Kitamura (Eds.), The political economy of educational reforms and capacity development in Southeast Asia: Cases of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam (pp. 131-152). Springer.
Khy, S. (2019, October 28). Wages set to increase for civil servants. Khmer Times. Retrieved from https://www.khmertimeskh.com/654902/wages-set-to-increase-for-civil-servants/?fbclid=IwAR2AHjRUyUwqY_Kx2NF5HuXYXn3UhCewhgYLbM5S4ABL4jbBxouQ882vTxA
Kim, J.-H., & Park, D. (2010). The determinants of demand for private tutoring in South Korea. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 411-421.
Kobakhidze, M. N. (2015). Shedding light on shadow education. Comparative Education Review, 59(3), 577-582.
Kuch, N., & Blomberg, M. (2014, April 8). Education ministry to delegate junior high exam to school. The Cambodia Daily. Retrieved from https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/education-ministry-to-delegate-junior-high-exam-to-schools-56015/
Lee, C.-J., Park, H.-J., & Lee, H. (2009). Shadow education system. In G. Sykes, B. Schneider, & D. N. Plank (Eds.), Handbook of educational policy research (pp. 901-919). Routledge for the American Educational Research Association.
Lewin, R. A. (1982). Symbiosis and parasitism: Definitions and evaluations. BioScience, 32(4), 254-260.
Li, T. S., & Choi, B. C. (2014). Private supplementary tutoring in Macao: Past, present and the future. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 505-517.
Maeda, M. (2019). Exam cheating among Cambodian students: When, how, and why it happens. Campare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 1(1), 1-19.
Mai, V. (2016, July 29). Teachers to be punished for corruption. Khmer Times. Retrieved from https://www.khmertimeskh.com/26268/teachers-to-be-punished-for-corruption/
MoEYS. (2008). Sub-decree on ethics code for the teaching profession. Author.
MoEYS. (2014). Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018. Author.
Mori, I., & Baker, D. (2010). The origin of universal shadow education: What the supplemental education phenomenon tells us about the postmodern institution of education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 36-48.
Mustary, M. (2019). The shadow education system in Bangladesh: A blessing or a curse? Glocal Education in Practice: Teaching, Researching, and Citizenship, 17(1), 64-70.
No, F., & Hirakawa, Y. (2012). Identifying causes of dropout through longitudinal quantitative analysis in rural Cambodian basis schools. Journal of international Development and Cooperation, 19(1), 25-39.
No, F., Taniguchi, K., & Hirakawa, Y. (2016). School dropout at the basis education level in rural Cambodia: Identifying its causes through longitudinal survival analysis. International Journal of Educational Development, 49(1), 215-224.
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2021-01-28
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A REVIEW OF CAMBODIAN PRIVATE TUTORING: PARASITIC AND SYMBIOTIC FUNCTIONS TOWARDS THE MAINSTREAM SYSTEM. (2021). Journal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS), 6(1), 42-58. https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol6iss1pp42-58
