Factors associated with child marriage among Rohingya refugee girls in Malaysia: A qualitative analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol10iss1pp399-419Abstract
Background and Purpose: Rohingya refugees have fled Rakhine state, Myanmar for decades due to persecution. While Malaysia has been a preferred destination, the Rohingya are considered illegals and struggle with protection, poverty, and poor access to healthcare and education. Child marriage is prevalent in this environment, impacting Rohingya girls. This study examined factors associated with child marriage among the Rohingya in Malaysia.
Methodology: This qualitative study was guided by both ecological and social exchange theory. The main methods of this study included in-depth interviews (IDIs) with Rohingya women married as girls (n=14), focus group discussions (FGDs) with community stakeholders (n=18), and FGDs with older Rohingya men (n=20). Criterion and snowball sampling were used, and data were analysed for themes with the assistance of Atlas.ti qualitative data analysis software.
Findings: The research showed that various factors associated with culture as well as displacement combined to push Rohingya families toward child marriage for their girls. Cultural factors impacting child marriage included patriarchal values of arranged marriages, girls needing to be protected, and girls and women not working outside the home. Religious factors such as Islamic beliefs also played a role. Factors related to displacement, such as poverty, lack of education, and the fact that there are more Rohingya men than women in Malaysia also contributed to child marriage.
Contributions: This paper provides insight into the factors associated with Rohingya child marriage in Malaysia. This information can assist NGOs and UNHCR in developing programs to prevent child marriage among the Rohingya in Malaysia.
Keywords: Child marriage, Malaysia, refugees, Rohingya, sustainable development goal.
References
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Erulkar, A. (2013). Early marriage, marital relations and intimate partner violence in Ethiopia. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 39(1), 6–13.
Franck, A. K. (2019). Corrupt(ing) borders: Navigating urban immigration policing in Malaysia. Geopolitics, 24(1), 251–269.
Gausman, J., Huda, F. A., Othman, A., Al Atoom, M., Shaheen, A., Hamad, I., Dabobe, M., Mahmood, H. R., Ibnat, R., & Langer, A. (2022). Girl child marriage and the social context of displacement: A qualitative comparative exploration of Syrian refugees in Jordan and Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–12.
Glick, P., Handy, C., & Sahn, D. E. (2015). Schooling, marriage, and age at first birth in Madagascar. Population Studies, 69(2), 219–236.
Guglielmi, S., Mitu, K., & Seager, J. (2021). ‘I just keep quiet’: Addressing the challenges of married Rohingya girls and creating opportunities for change. European Journal of Development Research, 33(5), 1232–1251.
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Islam, M. M., Khan, M. N., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). Attitudes to and experiences of intimate partner violence among Rohingya women who married before eighteen years of age. Global Health Action, 14(1), 1–5.
Kassim, A. (2015). Transnational marriages among Muslim refugees and their implications on their status and identity: The case of the Rohingyas in Malaysia. In I. Tokoro (Ed.), Islam and cultural diversity in Southeast Asia (pp. 175–201). ILCAA.
Khairi, A. (2018). Penanganan masalah pelarian Rohingya di Malaysia dalam konteks hybrid peace dan pendekatan multi-track. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Kiragu, E., Li Rossi, A., & Morris, T. (2011). States of denial: A review of UNHCR’s response to the protracted situation of stateless Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. UNHCR Policy Development.
Kohno, A., Dahlui, M., Nik Farid, N. D., Ali, S. H., & Nakayama, T. (2019). In-depth examination of issues surrounding the reasons for child marriage in Kelantan, Malaysia: A qualitative study. BMJ Open, 9(1), 1–10.
Kohno, A., Techasrivichien, T., Pilar Suguimoto, S., Dahlui, M., Nik Farid, N. D., & Nakayama, T. (2020). Investigation of the key factors that influence the girls to enter into child marriage: A meta-synthesis of qualitative evidence. PLoS ONE, 15(1), 1–20.
Letchamanan, H. (2013). Myanmar’s Rohingya refugees in Malaysia: Education and the way forward. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 2(2), 86–97.
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Mason, C., & Kaye, M. (2017). Horrors I will never forget - The stories of Rohingya children. Save the Children.
Melnikas, A. J., Ainul, S., Ehsan, I., Haque, E., & Amin, S. (2020). Child marriage practices among the Rohingya in Bangladesh. Conflict and Health, 14(1), 1–12.
Nazri, A. S., Talib@Khalid, K. A., Sulaiman, N., & Gidah, M. E. (2022). Untangling the needs of refugees in Malaysia: The way forward. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 7(1), 196–220.
O’Brien, M., & Hoffstaedter, G. (2020). “There we are nothing, here we are nothing!”—The enduring effects of the Rohingya genocide. Social Sciences, 9(11), 1–16.
Pereira, X., Verghis, S., Hoe, C., Ahmed, A. B., Nagiah, S., & Fernandez, L. (2019). Mental health of Rohingya refugees and asylum seekers: Case studies from Malaysia. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 181–186.
Rajaratnam, S. (2020). Rohingya women refugees’ and asylum seekers’ experiences in accessing healthcare services in Malaysian public hospitals. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Rajaratnam, S., & Azman, A. (2022). Refugee and asylum seeker women’s experiences with healthcare and social environment in Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 1-15.
Ripoll, S. (2017). Social and cultural factors shaping health and nutrition, wellbeing and protection of the Rohingya within a humanitarian context. Institute of Development Studies.
Shaw, S. A., Karim, H., Bellows, N., & Pillai, V. (2019). Emotional distress among Rohingya refugees in Malaysia. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 174–180.
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Tay, A. K., Islam, R., Riley, A., Welton-Mitchell, C., Duchesne, B., Waters, V., Varner, A., Silove, D., & Ventegovel, P. (2018). Culture, context and mental health of Rohingya refugees: A review for staff in mental health and psychosocial support programmes for Rohingya refugees. UNHCR.
Tay, A. K., Riley, A., Islam, R., Welton-Mitchell, C., Duchesne, B., Waters, V., Varner, A., Moussa, B., Mahmudul Alam, A. N. M., Elshazly, M. A., Silove, D., & Ventevogel, P. (2019). The culture, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Rohingya refugees: A systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 28(5), 489–494.
The Commissioner of Law Revision Malaysia. (1984). Islamic family law (federal territory) act 1984 (Act 103).
Todd, L., Amirullah, A., & Shin, W. Y. (2019). The economic impact of granting refugees in Malaysia the right to work. IDEAS.
Toma, I., Chowdhury, M., Laiju, M., Gora, N., & Padamada, N. (2018). Rohingya refugee response gender analysis: Recognizing and responding to gender inequalities. Oxfam.
UNHCR Malaysia. (2017). UNHCR strategic directions 2017-2021. UNHCR.
UNHCR Regional Office for South-East Asia. (2017). Mixed movements in South-East Asia 2016. UNHCR.
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Verghis, S. (2013). Access of Chin and Rohingya women refugees and asylum seekers from Burma to maternal health services in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. Monash University.
Wahab, A. A., & Khairi, A. (2019). Moving onward: Transnationalism and factors influencing Rohingyas’ migration from Bangladesh to Malaysia. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 4(1), 49–68.
Welton-Mitchell, C., Bujang, N. A., Hussin, H., Husein, S., Santoadi, F., & James, L. E. (2019). Intimate partner abuse among Rohingya in Malaysia: Assessing stressors, mental health, social norms and help-seeking to inform interventions. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 187–196.
Williamson, N. (2013). Motherhood in childhood: Facing the challenge of adolescent pregnancy. UNFPA.
Wodon, Q., Male, C., Nayihouba, A., Onagoruwa, A., Savadogo, A., Yedan, A., Edmeades, J., Kes, A., John, N., Steinhaus, M., Murithi, L., & Petroni, S. (2017). Economic impacts of child marriage: Global synthesis report. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
Zhooriyati, S. M., Crendy, T. Y. T., Aniq Luqman, S. A., Farah, U. S., & Eunice, D. (2021). Refugees life in Malaysia: A review paper. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6(9), 437–446.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513–531.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Chowdhury, M., Billah, Sk. M., Karim, F., Khan, A., Islam, S., & El Arifeen, S. (2018). Report on demographic profiling and needs assessment of maternal and child health (MCH) care for the Rohingya refugee population in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. Maternal and Child Health Division, icddr,b.
Ekeh, P. P. (1974). Social exchange theory: The two traditions. Heinemann.
Equal Rights Trust. (2014). Equal only in name: The human rights of stateless Rohingya in Malaysia. Equal Rights Trust.
Erulkar, A. (2013). Early marriage, marital relations and intimate partner violence in Ethiopia. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 39(1), 6–13.
Franck, A. K. (2019). Corrupt(ing) borders: Navigating urban immigration policing in Malaysia. Geopolitics, 24(1), 251–269.
Gausman, J., Huda, F. A., Othman, A., Al Atoom, M., Shaheen, A., Hamad, I., Dabobe, M., Mahmood, H. R., Ibnat, R., & Langer, A. (2022). Girl child marriage and the social context of displacement: A qualitative comparative exploration of Syrian refugees in Jordan and Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–12.
Glick, P., Handy, C., & Sahn, D. E. (2015). Schooling, marriage, and age at first birth in Madagascar. Population Studies, 69(2), 219–236.
Guglielmi, S., Mitu, K., & Seager, J. (2021). ‘I just keep quiet’: Addressing the challenges of married Rohingya girls and creating opportunities for change. European Journal of Development Research, 33(5), 1232–1251.
Hoffstaedter, G. (2015). Urban refugees and UNHCR in Kuala Lumpur: Dependency, assistance and survival. In G. Hoffstaedter & K. Koizumi (Eds.), Urban refugees: Challenges in protection, services and policy (pp. 187–205). Routledge.
Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms. Harcourt, Brace & World.
International Organization for Migration Bangladesh. (2023). 2023 Joint Response Plan: Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis. Inter Sector Coordination Group.
Islam, M. M., Khan, M. N., & Rahman, M. M. (2021). Attitudes to and experiences of intimate partner violence among Rohingya women who married before eighteen years of age. Global Health Action, 14(1), 1–5.
Kassim, A. (2015). Transnational marriages among Muslim refugees and their implications on their status and identity: The case of the Rohingyas in Malaysia. In I. Tokoro (Ed.), Islam and cultural diversity in Southeast Asia (pp. 175–201). ILCAA.
Khairi, A. (2018). Penanganan masalah pelarian Rohingya di Malaysia dalam konteks hybrid peace dan pendekatan multi-track. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Kiragu, E., Li Rossi, A., & Morris, T. (2011). States of denial: A review of UNHCR’s response to the protracted situation of stateless Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. UNHCR Policy Development.
Kohno, A., Dahlui, M., Nik Farid, N. D., Ali, S. H., & Nakayama, T. (2019). In-depth examination of issues surrounding the reasons for child marriage in Kelantan, Malaysia: A qualitative study. BMJ Open, 9(1), 1–10.
Kohno, A., Techasrivichien, T., Pilar Suguimoto, S., Dahlui, M., Nik Farid, N. D., & Nakayama, T. (2020). Investigation of the key factors that influence the girls to enter into child marriage: A meta-synthesis of qualitative evidence. PLoS ONE, 15(1), 1–20.
Letchamanan, H. (2013). Myanmar’s Rohingya refugees in Malaysia: Education and the way forward. Journal of International and Comparative Education, 2(2), 86–97.
Low, S. K., Kok, J. K., & Lee, W. Y. (2014). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress of Myanmar refugees in Malaysia. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 4(3), 201–205.
Mason, C., & Kaye, M. (2017). Horrors I will never forget - The stories of Rohingya children. Save the Children.
Melnikas, A. J., Ainul, S., Ehsan, I., Haque, E., & Amin, S. (2020). Child marriage practices among the Rohingya in Bangladesh. Conflict and Health, 14(1), 1–12.
Nazri, A. S., Talib@Khalid, K. A., Sulaiman, N., & Gidah, M. E. (2022). Untangling the needs of refugees in Malaysia: The way forward. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 7(1), 196–220.
O’Brien, M., & Hoffstaedter, G. (2020). “There we are nothing, here we are nothing!”—The enduring effects of the Rohingya genocide. Social Sciences, 9(11), 1–16.
Pereira, X., Verghis, S., Hoe, C., Ahmed, A. B., Nagiah, S., & Fernandez, L. (2019). Mental health of Rohingya refugees and asylum seekers: Case studies from Malaysia. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 181–186.
Rajaratnam, S. (2020). Rohingya women refugees’ and asylum seekers’ experiences in accessing healthcare services in Malaysian public hospitals. Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Rajaratnam, S., & Azman, A. (2022). Refugee and asylum seeker women’s experiences with healthcare and social environment in Malaysia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 1-15.
Ripoll, S. (2017). Social and cultural factors shaping health and nutrition, wellbeing and protection of the Rohingya within a humanitarian context. Institute of Development Studies.
Shaw, S. A., Karim, H., Bellows, N., & Pillai, V. (2019). Emotional distress among Rohingya refugees in Malaysia. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 174–180.
Sisters in Islam & Asian-Pacific Resource and Research Centre for Women. (2018). Child marriage: Its relationship with religion, culture and patriarchy. Sisters in Islam.
Tay, A. K., Islam, R., Riley, A., Welton-Mitchell, C., Duchesne, B., Waters, V., Varner, A., Silove, D., & Ventegovel, P. (2018). Culture, context and mental health of Rohingya refugees: A review for staff in mental health and psychosocial support programmes for Rohingya refugees. UNHCR.
Tay, A. K., Riley, A., Islam, R., Welton-Mitchell, C., Duchesne, B., Waters, V., Varner, A., Moussa, B., Mahmudul Alam, A. N. M., Elshazly, M. A., Silove, D., & Ventevogel, P. (2019). The culture, mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of Rohingya refugees: A systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 28(5), 489–494.
The Commissioner of Law Revision Malaysia. (1984). Islamic family law (federal territory) act 1984 (Act 103).
Todd, L., Amirullah, A., & Shin, W. Y. (2019). The economic impact of granting refugees in Malaysia the right to work. IDEAS.
Toma, I., Chowdhury, M., Laiju, M., Gora, N., & Padamada, N. (2018). Rohingya refugee response gender analysis: Recognizing and responding to gender inequalities. Oxfam.
UNHCR Malaysia. (2017). UNHCR strategic directions 2017-2021. UNHCR.
UNHCR Regional Office for South-East Asia. (2017). Mixed movements in South-East Asia 2016. UNHCR.
UNICEF Malaysia. (2022). Left far behind: The impact of COVID-19 on access to education and healthcare for refugee and asylum-seeking children in Malaysia. UNICEF.
United Nations. (2023). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. Sustainable Development Goals. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5
USA for UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency. (2024). Figures at a glance in Malaysia. UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/en-my/figures-at-a-glance-in-malaysia.html
Varia, N. (2016). Ending child marriage: Meeting the global development goals’ promise to girls. In Human Rights Watch (Ed.), World report 2016: Events of 2015 (pp. 33–40). Bristol University Press, Policy Press.
Verghis, S. (2013). Access of Chin and Rohingya women refugees and asylum seekers from Burma to maternal health services in the Klang Valley, Malaysia. Monash University.
Wahab, A. A., & Khairi, A. (2019). Moving onward: Transnationalism and factors influencing Rohingyas’ migration from Bangladesh to Malaysia. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 4(1), 49–68.
Welton-Mitchell, C., Bujang, N. A., Hussin, H., Husein, S., Santoadi, F., & James, L. E. (2019). Intimate partner abuse among Rohingya in Malaysia: Assessing stressors, mental health, social norms and help-seeking to inform interventions. Intervention: Journal of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Conflict Afflicted Areas, 17(2), 187–196.
Williamson, N. (2013). Motherhood in childhood: Facing the challenge of adolescent pregnancy. UNFPA.
Wodon, Q., Male, C., Nayihouba, A., Onagoruwa, A., Savadogo, A., Yedan, A., Edmeades, J., Kes, A., John, N., Steinhaus, M., Murithi, L., & Petroni, S. (2017). Economic impacts of child marriage: Global synthesis report. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
Zhooriyati, S. M., Crendy, T. Y. T., Aniq Luqman, S. A., Farah, U. S., & Eunice, D. (2021). Refugees life in Malaysia: A review paper. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 6(9), 437–446.
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2025-02-28
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Factors associated with child marriage among Rohingya refugee girls in Malaysia: A qualitative analysis. (2025). Journal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS), 10(1), 399-419. https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol10iss1pp399-419
